A History of Europe, Key Battles

The Paris Peace consisted of a group of distinct treaties, but the main concern of the delegates was the settlement with Germany, embodied in the Treaty of Versailles signed in June 1919. Germany’s eastern frontiers presented far greater problems. www.patreon.com/historyeurope www.historyeurope.net Music composed by Edward Elgar, Enigma variations, Variation IX (Adagio) Nimrod Picture - Treaty of Versailles, Big Four Theme tune for the podcast by Nico Vettese, www.wetalkofdreams.com Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

In Spring 1918 a massive German offensive made significant territorial gains, but ultimately not the intended breakthrough, and the Allied forces stood firm. Exhausted and demoralised at the scale of casualties, the Germans were pushed back in a major counter-attack in the late Summer and Autumn. And on 26 September, the Allies launched a general offensive along the entire Western Front. Meanwhile, the Habsburg empire was fast falling apart as various nationalities declared independence. www.patreon.com/historyeurope www.historyeurope.net Music composed by Alexander Scriabin, Etude in C sharp minor. Courtesy of musopen.org Picture - US 64th regiment celebrate the Armistice Theme tune for the podcast by Nico Vettese, www.wetalkofdreams.com Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

After the Russian withdrawal from the frontlines following the October revolution, the treaty of Brest-Litovsk is negotiated between Germany and Russia. The Germans sought to conclude war on the Eastern Front as quickly as possible, while at the same time trying to establish an informal empire in east-central Europe, one composed of newly independent nation states on Russia’s western periphery. However, back on the German home front, after four harsh winters and widespread hunger, political unity was fraying, and riots and strikes occurred across the country. Everything now depended on the success or failure of a German Spring Offensive on the western front. www.patreon.com/historyeurope www.historyeurope.net Picture - German Spring Offensive - British Lewis gun team at the Battle of Hazebrouck 1918 Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

While the nations of Europe fought each other to a bitter stalemate, the President of the United States, Woodrow Wilson, urged both sides to make peace. However, no agreement is made and the United States joined the war on the side of the Entente allies. In the meantime, the Germans ordered a general withdrawal at the western front, abandoning the battlefields of the Somme in order to establish a shorter, straighter and more well-fortified line, the so-called ‘Hindenburg Line’. The eastern front is more volatile, seeing the collapse of the Russian army, a major defeat for the Italians at Caporetto and the fall of Jerusalem to the British www.patreon.com/historyeurope www.historyeurope.net Music composed by Vaughan Williams (Fantasia on a Theme by Thomas Tallis), courtesy of musopen.org Picture - Allenby enters Jerusalem 1917 Theme tune for the podcast by Nico Vettese, www.wetalkofdreams.com Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

As the year 1917 dawned, Europe had been at war for two and a half years, and pressures on the home fronts were becoming intolerable. Every participant nation came under huge strain. In Russia the Tsarist regime falls in March, but the interim government is unstable and itself falls in the famous October Revolution, led by Vladimir Lenin, who promises to withdraw Russia from the war. www.patreon.com/historyeurope www.historyeurope.net Music composed by Frederich Chopin (The Polish Dancer) Picture - Vladimir Lenin, 1 May 1920 by Isaak_Brodsky Theme tune for the podcast by Nico Vettese, www.wetalkofdreams.com Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

Europe entered the year 1916 exhausted by one and a half years of conflict of a scale hitherto unimaginable, with profound effects on citizens at home, as well as those on the front line. The most intensive battles on the western front in 1916 are at Verdun and the Somme, with extraordinary numbers of casualties. Meanwhile, on the eastern front the Russians launch a major attack, the Brusilov offensive. Romania declared war on Austro-Hungary on 27 August 1916 and promptly invaded Transylvannia. www.patreon.com/historyeurope www.historyeurope.net Music composed by Erik Satie (Gymnopédie no. 1), Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov (Russian Easter Festival Overture, Op. 36) Picture - Verdun - Gervais-Courtellemont_french_anti-aircraft_guns Theme tune for the podcast by Nico Vettese, www.wetalkofdreams.com Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

For the Germans, 1915 was a year that should not have been. Their whole strategy had been based on a quick war, but they now found themselves embroiled in a two-front war – on the eastern front against Russia, and on the western front against France fully mobilised and also Britain. Throughout 1915, in a succession of attacks of increasing intensity, the various armies learned the techniques of the new kind of war at very heavy cost. In February 1915, Germany launched the Second Battle of the Masurian Lakes with an attack on the Russians in East Prussia. Meanwhile, the Austrians attempted to push deep back into Galicia, with huge numbers of casualties on all sides. www.patreon.com/historyeurope www.historyeurope.net Music composed by Frederich Chopin, Mazurka in C sharp minor, Op. 6 no. 2 Picture - Skoda_305_mm_Model_1911_LOC_War_of_the_Nations Theme tune for the podcast by Nico Vettese, www.wetalkofdreams.com Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

The first months of fighting in the First World War had seen no major breakthrough from any side. The Germans had captured about ten percent of France, and reached within sixty miles of Paris, but then reached a stalemate as both sides fortified their positions with great long lines of trenches running from Belgium to the Swiss border. Both sides attempt to bring other countries into the war to help break the stalemate and to tip the balance in their favour. The Italians, though deeply divided, decide in the end to join the side of Britain, France and Russia. And an allied attack against the Ottomans fails at Gallipoli. www.patreon.com/historyeurope www.historyeurope.net Music composed by Freredich Chopin, Mazurka in C Sharp Minor Picture - Sinking of the Lusitania Theme tune for the podcast by Nico Vettese, www.wetalkofdreams.com Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

The Russians strike hard against their most powerful enemy, Germany. Austro-Hungary help their German ally although their military forces are under-resourced, in large part because through the years the Hungarian parliament had restricted military finding by using it as a bargaining chip for political concessions. While the Austrians attack Serbia, the Germans achieve a significant victory against Russia at the Battle of Tannenberg. www.patreon.com/historyeurope www.historyeurope.net Music composed by Alexander Scriabin - Etude in C Sharp Minor Picture - Tannenberg Bundesarchiv, East Prussian German Infantry Theme tune for the podcast by Nico Vettese, www.wetalkofdreams.com Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

The first main clash of the First World War was on the borders of France and Germany and in Belgium. The Belgians put up more resistance than the Germans expect. However, the Battle of the Frontiers, on the Franco-German border, from 7 August to 6 September 1914 was a disaster for the French army, who suffered very heavy casualties. Meanwhile, the British Expeditionary Force were making their way to the front. The war was set on a grim path of attritional fighting, and with both sides able to draw on millions more men it became virtually impossible to secure an easy victory. As stalemate was reached, the dreadful realisation set in that the combatants would be in this for the long haul. www.patreon.com/historyeurope www.historyeurope.net Music composed by Sergei Rachmaninoff (Preludes, Op. 32, Lento, in B minor) Picture - French Bayonet Charge Theme tune for the podcast by Nico Vettese, www.wetalkofdreams.com Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austrian throne. A month later Austria retaliates by declaring war on Serbia, which in turn brings Russia and the other great powers of Europe into conflict. As Edward Grey memorably expressed it: “The lamps are going out all over Europe, we shall not see them lit again on our lifetime”. www.patreon.com/historyeurope www.historyeurope.net Music composed by Frederic Chopin (Mazurkas in C sharp minor) Picture - Franz Ferdinand, Sarajevo Theme tune for the podcast by Nico Vettese, www.wetalkofdreams.com Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

Why did the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand trigger the First World War? I also describe how the long struggle between European powers for mastery in central Africa reaches its climax. www.patreon.com/historyeurope www.historyeurope.net Picture - The Nine Sovereigns at Windsor for the funeral of King Edward VII Music composed by Frederic Chopin (The Polish Dancer) Theme tune for the podcast by Nico Vettese, www.wetalkofdreams.com Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

An analogy often given to the Balkans leading up to the First World War is a tinderbox, awaiting a flame to ignite it and set off a major conflagration across Europe. In fact, the region suffered a large-scale conflict already two years before the First World War began. Greece, Bulgaria, Serbia and Montenegro had all acquired their independence from the Ottoman Empire over the course of the 19th century. None of them, however, were happy with the territory under their control. Each aspired to lands still under Ottoman rule in Albania, Macedonia and Thrace. www.patreon.com/historyeurope www.historyeurope.net Music composed by Frederic Chopin (The Polish Dancer) Picture - King George I of Greece and Tsar Ferdinand of Bulgaria at Thessaloniki Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

The Italian invasion of Libya 1911. After initial successes, the Italians face strong resistance against the Ottomans and Libyans www.patreon.com/historyeurope www.historyeurope.net Music composed by Edward Elgar (The Crown of India, March of the Mogul Emperors) Picture - Italian landing at Tripoli Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

Following their countries independence in the mid 19th century, the Italians hoped to establish their status among the Great European Powers by acquiring colonial possessions. Their first main attempt was an unsuccessful invasion of Ethiopia, with a defeat at the Battle of Adowa in 1896 www.patreon.com/historyeurope www.historyeurope.net Music composed by Frederic Chopin Picture - Battle of Adwa Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

In the first years of the 20th century the Austrian Empire faced numerous problems, most of all the rising sense of nationalism among its various peoples. Attempting a more assertive foreign policy, the Austrians set about a plan to formally annex Bosnia and Herzegovina, which since 1878 had been administered by Vienna but still remained under nominal Ottoman suzerainty. However, this decision backfired terribly, triggering a six month diplomatic crisis which almost led to general war www.patreon.com/historyeurope www.historyeurope.net Music: Gustav Mahler's Fourth Symphony Picture - Le Petit Journal, Balkan Crisis 1908 Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

The Ottoman Empire is in disarray and its treasury bankrupt. Under Sultan Abdul Hamid, the Red Sultan, there are violent suppression of uprisings of the Armenians in Anatolia. And in the Balkans the Macedonians and Albanians appeal for independence. A rebellion in Macedonia leads to the The Young Turk revolution and the overthrow of the sultan. www.patreon.com/historyeurope www.historyeurope.net Music: Mazurkas by Chopin Picture - Sultan Abdul Hamid Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

Tsar Alexander II of Russia is assassinated in March 1881. He was probably the most liberal of all tsars of Russia, but succeeded by reactionary leaders Alexander III and then Nicholas II. Nicholas unwisely provokes Japan into a war, and is defeated, which is a catalyst for an attempted revolution in Russia in 1905 www.patreon.com/historyeurope www.historyeurope.net Music composed by Petr Tchaikovsky (Symphony nr 6 in B Minor) Picture - Russian battleship Oslyabya, the first warship sunk in the battle of Tsushima /Bombardment during the siege of Port Arthur Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

A summary of the main events from the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 to the beginning of the First World War in 1914 At the end of the nineteenth century the Balkans had multiple crises. The Treaty of Berlin 1878 was an attempt by the Great Powers of Europe to find a framework for stability in a region with various competing interests, many of them incompatible with each other. In effect, it created two spheres of influence in the Balkans: the Austrians’ in the west and the Russians’, together with the Serb allies, in the east. No side, however, was satisfied with Treaty. The Bulgarians were furious at having been denied the larger territory which they had won in battle. And the Serbians harboured ambitions for their borders to be expand southwards to areas inhabited by fellow Slavs, but under control partly of the Ottoman and partly the Austrians. www.patreon.com/historyeurope www.historyeurope.net Music composed by Ludwig van Beethoven Picture - Congress of Berlin Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

In April 1877, two Russian armies invaded the Ottoman empire. The focus of the war became the siege of Plevna in Bulgaria. The strong resistance there gave the Turks real hope for a final victory, or at least holding off the enemy and forcing a more favourable diplomatic solution. www.patreon.com/historyeurope www.historyeurope.net Music composed by Rimsky-Korsakov: Polonaise, and Russian Easter Festival Overture Picture - The defeat of Shipka_Peak, Bulgarian War of Independence Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.